Dark Age Warrior

Viking

Ibn Fadlan, a famed dark age Arabic traveler, said of a group of Rus Vikings he encountered, “I have never seen more perfect specimens, tall as date palms, blond and ruddy. Everyman is tattooed from finger nail to neck with dark green, or green blue-black trees and figures.”

So who were the Vikings? Well, the image of the horned helmet is a myth, based on a bronze Celtic helmet found in the Thames. There is no current archaeological evidence to support the image of a horned Viking helmet. Yes, they did raid the coast, but they were also proficient farmers, crafts-men and -women as well a great explorers and sailors.

The peak of the Viking presence within Europe was between the 8th and 11th century, during this period they colonized large areas of Europe, the UK, Iceland, Greenland and were the first European settlers in what is now known as North America, or as the Vikings referred to it as Vinland. The Vikings first raided the English coast in the 8th century, but it was the attack on Lindisfarne that brought them to national attention. This one act has done more damage and promoted the image of raping, pillaging demons from across the sea than any other act.

By the 9th Century Norse Vikings started to colonize eastern England which they called Danelaw. The Anglo Saxon kings slowly re-established control over Danelaw, yet the greatest of the Anglo Saxon kings was in fact a Norwegian Viking, Canute, who conquered much of Northern England, with York becoming a major Viking settlement.

The Vikings were also considered great explorers crossing the oceans to become the first settlers in North America, and settling in Iceland and Greenland. The Norse who came to Newfoundland were not fierce raiders in search of pillage and plunder, but farmers and craftsmen. The Norse appearance here was the last step in a relatively peaceful expansion of livestock farmers across the North Atlantic, taking in parts of the British Isles, Iceland, Greenland, and finally Vinland.

Viking Warrior

From 839, Varangian mercenaries in the service of the Byzantine Empire, notably Harald Hardrada, campaigned in North Africa, Jerusalem, and other places in the Middle East. Until recently in the last hundred years most people regarded the Vikings as brutes who raided and pillaged their way across Europe. We now know that they were great craftsmen, traders, farmers and artists, though our greatest perception of them is as fierce warriors, who dominated warfare between the 7th -11th Century.

Viking Warrior

The professional soldiers of the Viking warlords were known as Huscarls or household troops. These warriors served their lord in both battle and peace time, and were exceptionally experienced and skilled warriors. They would be placed at the head of the army in the front ranks. They had the ability to raise morale of those around them, giving courage by their mere presence. They would also operate independently as a unit attacking weak elements of an enemy’s army or defensive position, they were also expected to defend the leader and standard of the army as well.

Dark Age Warrior

A Viking commander would be expected to lead his army from the front, leading the charge into the enemy. The more ferocious and brave he was would boost the morale of his troops. The problem with this tactic was, that if he fell in battle it was likely that the army would withdraw or rout from the field of battle. So it was not uncommon for a leader to seek out his opposite number and engage in single combat in attempt to finish the battle as quickly as possible.

Berserkers

There were some members within a war band, that would go into a psychotic state when they went into battle. This was normally achieved through becoming intoxicated with either alcohol or a potent hallucinogenic mushroom, though many suffered from a taste for psychotic violence and would quite dangerous to friend and foe whilst in this state. They would charge in to battle frothing at the mouth, screaming. Shouting and showing complete disregard for their own safety, full of battle fury. It was this behaviour that help to make them a potent weapon on the field of battle, because it would unsettle the enemy.

It was not uncommon for many Vikings to drink copious amounts of ale prior to battle, in order to help summon up the courage needed for the viscous close quarter fighting. This would also mean that a large proportion of those fighting would be doing so drunk.

Warfare

Most engagements’ would have been skirmishes, such as raids, though large battles were fought on occasion. The largest armies may have consisted of 4,000 to 7,000 men, most of the armies would have disbanded once a campaign was over returning to their villages, or joining other war bands.

Shield Wall

Fleets could consist of anything from between 100 – 200 ships, with crews of anything between 25-60 warriors. The long ships shallow draught allowed to travel inland along rivers, which meant they could mount lightening raids deep in enemy territory before the alarm could be raised. The Viking long ships were ideal for coastal raiding, due to its shallow draft, they were able to land on any coastal beach or sail inland via one of the rivers. They made swift hit and run raids, targeting villages, towns and religious sites.

If a Viking war band had to stand and fight an open battle, they would form up into a Skjaldborg, or commonly known today as a shield wall. They would overlap their shields, and make a hedge of bristling spears towards the enemy. The two side would come together, pushing and shoving each others shield wall, whilst at the same time trying strike one another with weapons. This was done to try and break the wall, once broken it disintegrated, and the warriors slaughtered.

viking raid

Another tactic used by Vikings was know as the Boar Snout or also called the Swine Array (svinfylka), this was given to them by Odin the God of War. The warriors would form up into an arrowhead shaped shield wall, and charge their opponents shield wall, hoping to smash through and break the wall. The momentum of the charge and the shape of the formation had the ability to drive a wedge through the opposing shield wall. Many believe that this tactic may have been based on a similar Roman formation, though Saxon armies it seems may not have used it, as there is no documented evidence to indicate that they did. It must also be noted that only the professional elements of a Viking warband would have employed this tactic.

Weapons & Armour

Generally only the most wealthy of Vikings would or could afford a suit of  mail, most would wear either leather amour or platelet sown onto a leather or cloth hauberk, the poorest would neither. Some berserkers went into battle fully or semi naked, which would be rather scary seeing a naked bloke frothing at the mouth charging straight at you.

The axe is the weapon we associate with the Vikings of this period, the large broad battleaxe, as the weapon of choice for the blood thirsty Viking. An excellent example of it use in battle was on 25th September 1066 at the battle of Stamford Bridge. Norwegian King Harald Hardrada led a Viking horde against England for the crown. The Viking troops were on the opposite side of the river Derwent from the English Saxons under the command of Harold Godwinson.

The only way for the English troops to engage the Vikings was via a wooden bridge. One man held the Saxons at bay for a considerable length of time, armed with a huge battle axe, which had an 11 inch blade with its long haft gave the wielder a 7 ft clearance. Several Saxons were killed and injured attempting to cross the bridge, until one enterprising housecarl floated down river until he was under the bridge and whilst the Viking was distracted he thrust his spear up through the planks of the bridge killing the axe wielding warrior, allowing the Saxons to pour across.

Viking Swords

Viking swords were constructed using a pattern weld technique, this was done by twisting several iron rods together. These would then be beaten together, which would form a strong core. This created a pattern of the twisted rods in the blade giving its name. Once this was completed a harder, though more brittle edge was welded to the core. Due to the process used swords were considered an expensive item, so only the more wealthier of Vikings would possess one.

They utilized the shield for defense and offensive action. Shields were generally round and of lime wood construction, with a large iron boss in the center. The shield could be used to push  and barge the opponent off balance, as well as block thrusts and cuts from all weapons.

With access to the open seas the Franks and Saxons began raiding into Roman Territories, in Britain the Fens became vulnerable to attacks, due to the coastline being easy to reach and in parts reached 30 miles inland compared to the modern coastline. As a result Estuaries and ports suffered problems, as these became easy targets for raiders.
The Saxons and Franks became raiders and pirates with the first recorded incidents between 260-278AD. The first major raid was in 260 AD  in the aftermath of the capture of Valeria by the Persians. The Franks took the opportunity to raid Gaul, Sweeping through the country causing a lot of damage. The response by the central Roman Government was poor and this allowed a Roman army general called Postumus the ability to seize control of Britain, Gaul and Spain, whereby he created the Gallic Empire which lasted for 14 years.
During this period the Gothic tribes were also active in the Eastern half of the empire raiding over land and by sea around the Black and Aegean sea, where they sacked major cities such as Athens and Nicaea.
By the end of the late 3rd century there were raiders active right across the Roman Empire, from Scandinavia, Germania, Northern Britain in the form of the Picts, the Gothic, Huns and Alans in the East.

Prior to 1911 there had been several attempts by particular groups to rise up and over throw the Qing rulers, all of which had failed. Then on April 27th an uprising occurred in Guangzhou, known as the Yellow Flower Mound Revolt.

Huang Xing and approximately 100 armed  revolutionary supporters forced their way into the Viceroy of Guangdong and Guangxi residence. Initally they were successful but the Viceroy was reinforced with Qing government soldiers. These additional soldiers turned the tide in the Viceroy’s favour, the uprising suddenly turned into a disaster with only a few of the revolutionary members escaping, including Huang Xing, though he has injured. In the aftermath 86 bodies were found though only 72 could be identified, most of whom were young men.

One of those killed was a leading member of the revolution Lin Jie-min who on the eve of the uprising wrote a piece entitled A letter to my wife, which is widely considered a master piece in Chinese modern literature.

Wuchang Uprising

In October later that year, the Qing government nationalised the railways, which had been built by private investors. This led to what has been called Wuchung Uprising , what made this one successful was the support from local military.

On October 9th  at the Russian Concession in Hankou Revolutionaries were planning an attack, whilst bombs were being prepared for this attack an accident occurred caused by an explosion. Sun Wu a local leader of the political group Progressive Association was injured along with several others. Those who were injured were taken to a local hospital for treatment and the staff suspecting something informed the local Qing government.
Members of the New Army garrisoned in the city of Wuchung led a coup against the local authorities on October 10th.

Infantry

The local Viceroy of Huyuang Duan Zheng is tasked with tracking down the revolutionaries. In response to this Jiang Yiwu and the Literary Society  launch an attack, but Qing agents are made aware of the attack resulting in several members being arrested and executed. On the evening of October 10th the New Army in WuChung stage a mutiny, this allows revolutionaries to take control of the Viceroy’s Government house/office. Duan Zheng managed to escape via a tunnel during the attack.  Fierce fighting continued during the night for control of the city, with troops fighting street to street. The mutinied soldiers manage to capture key strategic places within the city leading to the defeat of government troops.

Battle of Yangxia

The battle of Yangxia was the largest military engagement of the 1911 revolution, lasting from October 18th to December 1st, a  total of 43 days. The battle was waged in Hankou, Hangyang and Wuchang in Central China. The revolutionary army were outnumber and out gunned throughout the battle, they fought defiantly in the face of greater odds.

Artillery

On October 18th approximately 1,000 revolutionary soldiers launch an attack on Luijiamiao, a railway station guarding the Northern  approach to Hankou. After fierce fighting on both sides the revolution army are driven back to Dazkimen. Later that day along with local railway workers they ambush a Qing troop train, killing 400 and derailing the train. The following day large numbers of volunteers join the Revolution army ranks, now numbering 5,000 strong they launch a second attack on Luijiamiao this time capturing the station.

With morale high within the ranks of the revolution army, they press an attack Wushengguan but are driven back with heavy losses. Two days later the provinces Hunan and Shaanxi pronounce their independence from the Qing government. As a result of the events had occurred in the Wuchang region Yin Chang is removed as head of government forces and replaced with Yuan Shikai.

Yuan Shikai’s first move as the new commander was to order the Beiyang Qing Army south on October 26th to attack the Northern Suburbs of Hankou, supported with heavy artillery and machine guns. In the fighting that ensued 500 soldiers of the revolution army  were killed in action, they also lost control of Luijiamiao  during the initial attack be later that day regained control of the station. The following day Qing troops captured and held the station, revolutionary troops were to try and fail to recapture the station for rest of the battle.

On the 28th Tomgmenghui revolution leaders Huang Xing and Song Jiauren arrive. Huang takes control of the revolutionary forces. The following day he leads 1000 soldiers to Wuchang, where 6,000 are holding out to superior Qing forces.

Feng Guozhang orders Qing troops to raze Hankou, the fires burn for three days and destroys much of the city. By November 1st Qing troops control Hankou, thousands on both sides are killed or captured in the fight for the city. Two days later soldiers from the Hunan province arrive to bolster the revolutionary army. By now eleven provinces have declared independence from the Qing government, along with elements of the Qing Navy defecting to the side of the revolution.

Huang Xing, against advice attempts to retake Hankou on the 17th of November. Starting with an artillery barrage revolution troops cross the Han river. The artillery fire from the revolution side is inaccurate and ineffective, the right flank falters and is halted by artillery fire from the Qing army. The left flank manages to cross the river but is now venerable to a far superior Qing Army and were forced to make a retreat back across the river.

Battle of Hengyang

Fours days after Huang’s failed attempt to retake Hankou, the Qing military launch an attack on Hengyang. The first element of the Qing forces bypasses revolutionary defences, whilst the second on the following day attacks crossing the Han river. They capture the  strategic heights overlooking Hengyang.

In response the revolutionary forces send reinforcements across the Yangtze river to Hengyang but suffer heavy losses on route. After seven days of fierce house to house fighting the Qing army slowly fights its way to the centre of the city capturing Hengyang Munnitions factory and revolutionary artillery positions on Guishan. On  November 27th the revolutionary army retreats from the city having lost over 3,000 soldiers and volunteers during the battle.

Yuan Shikai agrees to a 3 day ceasefire on December 1st , Sichuan province declares for independent rule from central government and revolutionary forces were threatening to capture Nanjing and Shanxi. On the 25th December Revolution leader returns from exile abroad to Shanghai. On the January 1st 1912 the Republic of China is founded. By Febuary 12th the last Emperor Pu Yi abdicates Qing control of China for the last 247 years.

During the course of the revolution and civil war of 1911 there were several other uprisings and small scale actions throughout China. Though the largest military action were in the Wuchang area of China.

Gaming this period can be done in several ways. Firstly you could refight the battle of Yangxia, though you will need to remember that Qing forces were superior in numbers and equipment. Also the majority of the revolutionary forces were volunteers, rather than military soldiers. An ideal way to play this period of Chinese history would be to start off with a small skirmish force of revolutionary activists building up to a large scale battle at the end of the campaign.

Geoffrey of Monmouth
Geoffrey was a Welsh cleric born around 1100 AD and possibly born in the Monmouth region of Wales. It is believed he was Welsh or due to his poor knowledge of the Welsh language, that he was Cambro-Norman and belonged to the French speaking elite on the Welsh border.

It is also possible that early in his career he served as a Benedictine monk in Monmouth, though between 1129 and 1151 his name appears on six charters in the Oxford area. His writings indicate that he has an excellent degree of knowledge of the Monmouth area and that it is well known to him.

Geoffrey wrote several books, but what he is most well known for was Historia Regum Britanniae or the History of the Kings of Britain. He is also credited with making the King Arthur Myth popular. The books starts with the first settlement in Britain of the Trojan descendants by Brutus and his people, through to Cadwallader in the 7th Century.

He claims it is a translation of an ancient book written in the British language, though much of the book is based on earlier writings, such as Bede’s Historia Ecclesastica Gentis Anglurum and Gilda’s De Excidio et Conquestu Britannie.

Geoffrey’s book is more a fictional account peppered with popular history rather than a genuine historical factual piece of literature. It is recognised today as a literary work of national myth. Many of his contemporaries dismissed his work as ‘made up’. However, his work was popular across Europe where it helped to shape and structure the Arthurian myth. He is regarded by many scholars as the major establisher of the Arthurian myth.

He is also responsible with History of the Kings of Britain for bringing Merlin to the attention of the public. Then around 1150 he came into possession of some new source material relating to the bard Myrddin (Merlin). These sources didn’t line up with what he had published in the History of the Kings of Britain. This may have been because he had attributed acts carried out by another Royal Advisor, to Myrddin or had just fabricated them.

Thus Geoffrey wrote the Life of Merlin in order to place Merlin within the context of his History of the British Kings. He gave long life to the myth of Merlin and made him an immortal figure of the Arthurian legend.

Brutus and the Trojans

After the fall of Troy, the Trojans flee and settle across Europe. Aeneas and his people settle in Italy. Brutus was the grandson of Aeneas. It is said that Brutus accidentally kills his father whilst out hunting. As a result he is exiled from Italy so he leaves with a large group of warriors and families. They sail and wander around the Tyrrhenian sea and up to Gaul. Whilst in Gaul campaigning, he founds the city of Tours. He leaves Gaul because the fighting was becoming too difficult, he was facing more Celtic tribes than he and his warriors were able to beat. So they travel across the channel to Britain, which is called Albion.

He heads for the South West of Britain, this region is well known to the Trojans due to its tin production. The Mediterranean region has been purchasing tin from the tribes in the South West for a number of years as it is a vital ingredient in the production of bronze.

It is believed that Brutus lands at the modern town of Totnes, named New Troy, and renames Albion after himself (Brutain). They settle in Cornwall, though they are harassed by local giants, one in particular named Gogmaogg. A Trojan hero named Corineus challenges the giant and defeats Gogmaogg by throwing him off a cliff.

They quickly subdue the local tribes living in the South West peninsula and start to create a Trojan/Greek state.

Move on a few years…

A hundred years after the Trojan invasion and settlement, the Greek state of Kernow has become prosperous and extremely powerful from the production of tin on a large scale. Several towns, cities and villages have been built and settled.

Using local material such as granite, buildings have been fashioned in a Greek/Mediterranean fashion. Ports are built at key points along the coast of Kernow creating a bustling business in trade with the continent, especially such places as Rome, Greece and North Africa.

The Trojan elite have become quite powerful and are eyeing the rest of Britain.The local British tribes have become weary of their new neighbours over the last 100 years, though as yet there have been no moves by the Trojans for conquest. They have traded with Kernow for goods and there has been, to some degree, an uptake by Celtic tribes for Greek-style goods.

Some of the tribes in the South East have developed pseudo Greek cultures along with strong trade ties with Gaul, Ammorica and Italy selling grain and other produce to them. It is these cities and small kingdoms that the Trojan ruling elite have their eyes on.

Kernow Trojan Army
Infantry
The Trojan army consists of elite Hoplite units that are only manned by those who are of Trojan descent. These are well-armed and are equipped with only the best Bronze armour and iron weapons. Other units include Celtic-Trojan auxiliaries. These troops are of Celtic/Albion descent, they are equipped with some Greek-style armour and Celtic weapons.

Cavalry
The Trojans soon take to the British/Albion use of the chariot. They now have two types, a light chariot used for skirmish purposes and generally driven by Celtic-Trojans and a heavy chariot unit which uses a more Roman-style chariot used for breaking up ranks of infantry.

The Kernow Trojans also make use of local ponies for scouts and have light horse cavalry as well.

Officers are generally of Trojan descent, though local elites are also given command though never of a Hoplite unit. They can only command auxiliary and cavalry troops.

Fortifications
Along the border of Kernow, what is now modern Devon and Somerset border, are a line of small forts. These are to protect the Trojans from attacks by local tribes, though it has mainly been cattle raids and small skirmishes rather than any large scale attacks.

The coast is also well-protected with watch towers at key points to spot any potential seaborne invasion.

Naval
Over the last 100 years the Trojan elite have built up a substantial naval capacity of both military and merchant vessels along with numerous fishing boats. This has given them a strong presence both around the waters of Britain but also in the Mediterranean, allowing them to build strong trade links with many countries in both regions.

More recently they have set up a small port on the coast of Ireland. This is, in part, to establish trade links and also to combat a growing pirate presence operating from the Irish and Welsh coasts. Using small ships, raiders/pirates attack trade vessels destined to and from Kernow Trojan ports.

Kernow Celts  
After the settlement of the Trojans the local tribes became second class citizens. A hundred years on, it is possible for citizens of local descent to rise in station, especially through trade. The Trojans have become the noble elite and at first were responsible for most aspects of life. Now, a hundred years on, education, trade, military and local government has become accessible to local inhabitants. There are still some areas which are barred to locals, such as the elite Hoplite regiments, Royal Guard, the Senate and ownership of tin mines. Within the military, senior command is still only open to those of Trojan Descent, no local would be considered to command a Kernow Army.

Expansion
The Trojan elite have started to look at expansion into southern Ireland, having now established a port and small town called Nesos in what is now modern day Cork. Nesos has become a small, bustling town, bringing goods in and out of the country. So far, they haven’t had any problems with the local Irish tribes, in fact most have welcomed them because of the luxury goods the Trojans have introduced to them.Most of the Irish nobles have accepted the Trojan lifestyle very easily, building villas and houses in the Trojan/Greek style.

They have also looked at setting up a similar port/town in Wales to help establish trade links.

Though their main aim was the conquest of Britain, they first moved into the southern area of the country tackling the Celtic tribes there.

Celts (outside of Kernow)
The tribes beyond the borders of Kernow have been influenced by Greek/Trojan culture but have not relinquished their Celtic roots. Some tribes have built stone structures and developed military along similar lines, but they are still deep-rooted in a Celtic warrior culture, living in hill forts and fortified settlements.

Those in the South East of the country have developed strong trade links with the continent and still have a strong Celtic culture, though in the last 50 years they have also developed links with the Mediterranean and in particular Rome, which has had influence on these tribes. Roman culture can be seen in the goods traded and in some cases the building structures being developed, though they’re still using local traditional materials rather than stone, concrete and marble.

Tribes in the North of England are still strongly Celtic in culture. They live in the same manner as they did prior to the Trojan invasion. They fight amongst each other and carry out raids on their southern rich neighbours.

Roman Influence
Rome expanded in the same manner as they did historically, though conquest of Gaul was completed in a much quicker time scale. The Roman army has moved through Gaul with a larger army, their main aim was and still is the invasion of Britain. They see the Trojan state of Kernow as a threat to Roman expansion.

The Romans are having to compete for trade in the Mediterranean region. Kernow has much better trade contacts in the region and is exploiting them at a cost to Rome. The senate have their sights firmly set on the growing wealth of the Trojans.

So far they have sent emissaries to the tribes along the South East of Britain offering aid if the Trojans attack. They know that if they are to become the dominant force in the region then they need to curb any expansion by the Trojans.

Northern Europe
The tribes of Germania are stirring, the Trojans have seen that Rome could be a problem and so have sent emissaries to the most influential of the Germanic tribes offering support and aid for an invasion of Gaul. If the German tribes overrun Gaul, then the Romans will be delayed or even prevented from interfering within Britain thus allowing the Trojans to continue with expansion plans unhindered.

This article is currently available in Issue 13 Irregular Magazine 

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Rome’s obsession to conquer Persia dates back to around 55 BC when Crassus needed a victory, and the plunder that would come with that victory, for political ends in Rome. He looked to the Persian empire to provide both. Crassus took a Roman army into Persia near the town of Harran and met with a Persian army under the command of Surena. It was at this battle that the Roman army met a new type of soldier, horse archers and heavily armoured cavalry very similar to medieval knights.

The horse archers armed with laminated bows could loose an accurate shot from 300 yards and it would punch through Roman armour from 150 yards away. Another devastating feat these horse troops could perform, was called the Parthian shot. They could fire the bow from behind and whilst being pursued were able to turn in the saddle and loose accurate shots at their pursuers.

Crassus lost the battle of Harran, along with around 30,000 legionnaires, whilst a further 10,000 were captured. Only around 500 soldiers returned home to Rome.

The captured forces were brought into the Persian military within Central Asia. Chinese records state that two generals encountered a strange army in a city 500 miles east of Margiana. They had a fortified position in the form of a double palisade and were being drilled with large rectangular shields to form a defensive screen. The only soldiers during this period who used these tactics, fortifications and large rectangular shields were the Romans.

Persian Frontier

The frontier with Persia became a constant conflict. Rome’s professional army consumed 80% of revenue gained from taxes. The empire had become a military state whereby the army could appoint or dethrone an emperor. It had reached the point where the only way to feed itself was from plunder gained from military action. By the time of Severus Septimius the most lucrative place to conquer was the vast Persian empire.

Severus managed to capture Ctesiphon and gained two new provinces, Osrhoene and Mesopotamia. The amount of gold, silver and commodities gained from that military operation kept the Roman empire’s treasury from going bankrupt for a couple of decades.

During the third century the border between the Roman empire and Persia’s was in a constant state of conflict and wa, from cross-border raids and skirmishes to small-scale military actions.

In 295 AD Rome was repelled in an attack in Ctesiphon, but they captured the Persian king’s harem. The capture of the harem was a massive coup, not only did it contain thousands of concubines, but it also housed the entire royal family along with the royal children.

Rome returned the harem for control of the Persian lands in the North West which included Northern Mesopotamia. A treaty was brokered. The defence of the border was becoming a massive full-time job that drained the empire of money annually.

In 312 AD, Constantine came to power in Rome after a bitter civil war. He decided to shift the seat of power to Constantinople away from Rome. Another change he implemented was to make the Roman empire Christian, which led to persecution of Christians in the Persian empire. On the death of Constantine, Shapur II moved to retake the lands Rome had previously taken, so from 337 to 350 Rome and Persia were in a state of war for the land of Mesopotamia.

The ongoing conflict against the Persians during the last two centuries had drained both the Roman economy and military. It placed a constant drain on resources of other frontiers within the Roman empire reducing manpower along the Rhine and Danube. This lead to larger incursions by Germanic and Gothic armies. It probably also led to the hiring of Germanic mercenaries in the later stages of the empire and the payment of tributes to the Huns, Goths and Vandals.

At the same time the same was happening to the eastern borders of the Persian empire i.e. the Persian army was also slowly being drained of resources. This led to the Huns on the Kushan frontier being able to move into Persia and across to the Roman empire.

Sassanians

Septimius Severus’s campaign against the Persians had weakened the Romans and this had allowed the Sassanian movement to take power. The old feudal style of government that the Persians employed was obliterated by the Sassanians and replaced by a centralised system of government. This was very similar to the Roman system of government.

Another change they made was to develop a professional army. Troops were placed on salaries, which meant that the Roman army was no longer the only professional standing army in the ancient world.

From the Sassanians, Iran was born, and all non-Iranians were considered to be from the Kingdom of Lies, which generally meant anyone from the Roman Empire.

In 231 AD a Roman army was sent to Antioch under the control of the Emperor Alexander Severus. The aim was to try and start negotiations with the Sassanian emperor Ardashir. Ardashir sent four hundred envoys, who were richly dressed and outfitted, to the negotiations in Antioch. The aim of this was to show the Romans the wealth and power that lay within the Sassanian  empire, with a subtle message that the Roman army should leave Syria and hand back all territory in the east.

Alexander sent the troops into what became a stalemate. The Romans lost large quantities of soldiers, whilst the Sassanians lost land in Mesopotamia. Alexander was murdered two years later by his own army.

King Shapur

By 220 AD Persia was now 400 years old and it had been in conflict with Rome for most of those 400 years.

Shapur was crowned in 241 AD following the death of his father. Shapur needed and looked for new conquests to cement his coronation. His first military task was to invade the Kushan Empire and in doing so he destroyed the Kanishka dynasty. Once that campaign was completed, he turned his focus on the Romans by pushing deep into Mesopotamia. Once in Mesopotamia he came up against the Roman Emperor Gordian 3rd (238-244 AD).

Gordian was an inexperienced 17 year old and was no real match for Shapur. Gordian was being advised on military matters by the Praetorian Prefect Gaius Timesitheus. Shapur and his army met the Romans west of the Euphrates near the town of Reshiana. Here Shapur received a setback. Gordian also received a setback when Gaius took ill and died from disease leaving Gordian to campaign without him.

Gordian marched his forces to Babylonia. They clashed with Shapur’s forces at Misikhe. It was during this battle that Gordian was killed and the Roman force destroyed. Philip the Arab, who had succeeded Gaius as Gordian’s military advisor, desperately needed to return home to Rome now that the Emperor was dead. He was eager to finish the campaign against Shapur so that he could return without delay. He paid Shapur a large sum of gold to effect a peace treaty.

Philip was succeeded by Decius as the new emperor in 251 AD. He died the same year whilst on campaign against the Goths who had inflicted a terrible defeat against the Roman army. This defeat allowed, or prompted, Shapur to begin a new campaign against Rome. He knew that the Roman army was weak because of defeat at the hands of the Goths. Shapur took his troops along the Euphrates into the province of Syria. At Barbalissos the Roman garrisons stationed there were destroyed, Shapur claimed 60,000 Roman troops were killed, though this is probably a slight exaggeration. This now meant that Shapur had control of Syria and the capitol Antioch. At this period Antioch was one of the largest and most prestigious of the Roman cities within the Empire.

It was because Antioch was such a prestigious and wealthy city that Rome responded immediately by sending troops under the command of Publius Licinius Valerianus (Valerian) to relieve the city. The initial campaign went in favour of the Roman army. They forced Shapur to fall back, though this campaign by Persia was more in keeping with a raid than a serious military campaign.

By 253 AD Valerian managed to win a small victory on the outskirts of Edessa, then bad luck struck in the form of disease and plague breaking out within his army. The disease decimated the army and Valerian was forced to retreat behind the city walls of Edessa. Once inside, Shapur saw an opportunity to exploit and moved to besiege the city. It wasn’t long before Valerian offered terms and decided to negotiate in person alongside his senior officers. This was an unusual tactic, and not one Shapur would have contemplated, even though within military and noble circles in Persia there is a great sense of honour and code. Valerian may have also thought he was safe due to this high honour, but the negotiators and Valerian were taken captive.

It was said that Shapur used Valerian as his mounting block when getting onto his horse. Valerian lived another two years. After he died, Shapur had Valerian’s skin stripped from his body and stuffed with straw to make him look lifelike. He then placed it on display in a Persian temple.

The ruler of Palmyra, Odaenathus, saw an opportunity to make an alliance with Persia and sent envoys to Shapur suggesting such a move. Shapur sent a message back stating that Odaenathus, was a vassal and insolent to suggest an alliance. This insult was a mistake, because Odaenathus was an excellent field commander with a small highly mobile force. Odaenathus attacked the Persians. As they were retreating from recent victories laden with plunder, he managed to send them scattering. He then used his power as a Roman magistrate to command the forces of the East. Suddenly Shapur was on the defensive against a Roman army who were commanded by a competent and experienced general. After five years of campaigning Shapur was driven from the Roman provinces he had conquered. Odaenathus even managed to drive his troops to the outskirts of the Persian city of Ctesiphon.

Shapur remained in a wary stand off with Rome. He had lost as many battles as he had won, though he had gained a vast amount of prestige for capturing the Roman Emperor Valerian. Problems were growing along his own borders. Those with India were now presenting problems he could no longer ignore. He was also having to deal with Nomads from further east who were also proving to be troublesome. So his focus on Rome was switched to internal and eastern borders. Shapur continued to reign until 272 AD when he died from natural causes. This was unusual for a Persian monarch.

Palmyra and Queen Zenobia

Palmyra was part of the Roman province Syria Phoenice. It was a very wealthy trading city with its population dedicated to import-export between East and West. Most of the trade between the Mediterranean, Persia, India and China went through the city, which made its inhabitants extremely wealthy. With its wealth they had street colonnades built and the city had a Romano-Greek style and feel. They trained an army of horse archers to protect their investments and provided a constant supply of troops to the Roman army.

Yet the ongoing conflict between Persia and Rome was having a detrimental effect on trade which meant lower levels of wealth. It became so bad that around 250 AD the ruler of Palmyra sent word to Shapur offering to become an ally. Shapur refused saying he had no allies but subjects.

Emperor Valerian offered the ruler of Palmyra, Odaenathus, the governorship of Syria, in return for troops in Valerian’s campaign against Shapur. When Valerian was captured, the new governor continued a campaign against Shapur. The new emperor Gallienus named him Supervisor of the East.

In 267 AD the governor was assassinated. His wife claimed the title on behalf of her son and became Queen Zenobia. She was an accomplished hunter and fought alongside her husband against the Persians.

Gallienus decided to announce that the authority of Zenobia would be limited and Palmyra would be become a client state. She decided otherwise and set herself up as an independent state. She even went as far to mint her own coins with the term Augusta, mother of the emperor, and gave herself the title Queen of the East.

Aurelian replaced Gallienus as Emperor and set about bringing those provinces who had rebelled, which included Palmyra, back under military and central control. The Roman army fought two battles against Zenobia and her army, winning on both occasions. Zenobia was captured and sent back to Rome, with her reign ending in 272 AD. In 273 AD the city of Palmyra was flattened and its inhabitants were either killed or sent into slavery.

The Goths moved south east splitting into two separate distinct groups, Ostrogoths or Eastern Goths and the Visigoths, who settled in Dacia. In 236 AD they made their first contact with the Roman Empire, with incursions across the river Danube. The Goths slowly absorbed Roman culture over a period of time.

Ulfilas, a follower of the Arian God, was the first to convert the pagan Goths to Christianity during the mid fourth century. He is also responsible for the translation of the bible to Gothic, there are some surviving  pieces of the text, known as the Codex Argenteus or Silver Bible.

It was the growing power of the Huns that finally displaced the Gothic tribes and pushed them into the Roman empire. The Ostrogoths were pushed westward by the Huns, which in turn pushed the Visigoths into the Romans. Valens allowed the Visigoths to settle in the depopulated regions of upper Macedonian providence. The aim was that the Goths would act as a buffer zone against the encroaching Huns. Problems were created by corrupt local Roman officials who mistreated the Goths, this mistreatment led to the Goths breaking their treaty with Rome.

The Visigoths rebelled plundering the countryside, which resulted in the attack and siege of  Adrianople in August 378 AD. The Goths defeated the last field army of the Roman Empire. They decimated the Roman Military, after this event the empire was forced to rely on mercenaries and the Foederati.

Athanius, Gothic leader, made peace with the Empire and emperor Theodosius. The Goths rejoined the empire, providing troops for the army and again acting as a buffer zone to the barbarian Huns. The Goths also now sent young nobles to Constantinople. These were to act as hostages, but the aim was also to Romanise the young nobles in the hope of fully integrating them into the empire. Whilst there they also received a first class education in the Roman military. The empire hoped that these future leaders would be more at home with the Roman way of life, and become active members of the Roman Military machine, thus persuading the Goths to become extended members of the Roman Empire. One of these young nobles sent to Constantinople was a young Alaric. Whilst in the Eastern Empire capital he met another young future leader, Stilicho, who would eventually become the last great defender of the Western Roman Empire.

In 394 AD, both Alaric and Stilicho, accompanied Theodosius along with the Roman army westward to deal with the pretender to the throne Eqnatius, who was supported by the Frankish King Arbogast. Alaric and his gothic troops fought against Eqnatius and Arbogast in the Eastern Alps . After a hard and furiously fought campaign the pretenders were defeated. Afterward Alaric believed he and his men had been  used, that his men had been sacrificed and used as fodder during the campaign.

In 395 AD Theodosius died, the Empire was divided into two between his sons Honorius, who commanded the west, and Arcadius who ruled the eastern half of the empire. Alaric believed he was undervalued as a leader and was extremely bitter towards the ruling elite of the empire because he felt he hadn’t been given a position of high command.

The Goths wanted a kingdom of their own to command and Alaric wanted a position of importance and authority. The gothic tribes declared Alaric king of the Goths. He then led his people and army against Constantinople, travelling through and plundering Greece. They conquered several cities, some of which included Sparta, Corinth and Argos, before reaching the Eastern Capital.

During this time the Goths learnt cavalry warfare and tactics. The use of the heavy cavalry horse became the favoured military tactic of the Gothic leaders. The cavalry used a heavy lance called a kontos and carried several light javelins. Many on the Roman infantry units neither had the discipline or  the stomach to stand against a Gothic cavalry charge. The Gothic army had the advantage of being highly mobile, due to having a minimal baggage train. Alaric and the Goths terrorised the  Greek people for a period of two years, until Stilicho arrived with a Roman army. The Gothic army took to ships and escaped over the Corinthian gulf and moved northwards.

Another Gothic leader Radagaisus built an army which contained a multitude of warriors from different cultures and nations, these included Roman deserters and slaves. They crossed the Danube river and headed down to Italy with 20-40,000 warriors. They marched and plundered their way down to Florence. Stilicho reacted by marching a force of 20,000 Roman troops, which included Alan and Hun mercenaries against Radagaisus. The Gothic army was driven into the Fiesola Highlands, where they were trapped. Lacking food they started to starve and desertions became common. Once they were at their weakest point Stilicho moved in and annihilated them. They captured thousands of Gothic warriors who were pressed into service with the Roman army, Radagaisus was captured and executed.

In 406 Britain rebelled and proclaimed Constantine Emperor. He led an army from  Britain across the channel to the continent. A general named Sarus was sent against him and was unsuccessful. Alaric was paid 4,000 pounds of gold to march against this pretender from Britain. On the 13th August Stilicho was executed because he tried to leave the west on a visit to the east, leaving Alaric in command of the western military. As a result approximately 30,000 allied barbarian soldiers left Italy and joined Alaric. Then in 408 AD Alaric with his warriors invaded Italy, with Stilicho dead there was no competent general to stand against this invasion by Alaric and his Goths.

They captured Rome and managed to cut the supply lines between Rome and North Africa, which was the major supplier of grain to the Roman city. Alaric demanded gold, silver and any other portable treasure such as spice, which could easily be carried. The senate offered Alaric a deal of 5,000 gold, 30,000 silver and much more, but the deal fell through because Honorouis withheld the Roman position and land rights which Alaric had demanded and wanted so badly. The siege continued through 409AD, the city rebelled and along with the Goths appointed a new Emperor Attaalus, who appointed Alaric Magister Utrusque Militum.

The problem with this new Emperor was he suddenly gained some back bone and displayed a mind of his own, something the Goths hadn’t expected. He refused the Goths passage to North Africa. Alaric became angry and frustrated so disposed of Attalus. The Goths then blockaded Rome stopping vital supplies entering the city. On the 24th August the Salarium Gates to the city were opened allowing the Goths into the city. Once inside they plundered the city of its riches before moving southwards.

They tried to cross the sea to Sicily, but were hampered by bad weather. A storm blew in and wrecked the Gothic fleet. This forced them to return to Italy and head northwards. It was during this time that Alaric succumbed to illness and died. Alaric is buried somewhere under the river Buzita, the exact location remains a mystery. The reason for this is because the Goths used slaves to divert the river so he could be buried, once this was completed the slaves were killed and the river allowed to run its course. All those who could have located the exact spot where Alaric was buried were killed.

Eventually the Visigoths were settled in southern Gaul as foederati of the Romans, the reasons for which are still subjects for debate among scholars. They soon fell out with their hosts and established their own kingdom with its capital at Toulouse. They slowly extended their authority into Hispania, displacing the Vandals and Alans. Their rule in Gaul was cut short in 507 at the Battle of Vouillé, when they were defeated by the Franks under Clovis I. Thereafter the only territory north of the Pyrenees that the Visigoths held was Septimania and their kingdom was limited to Hispania. This came completely under the control of their small governing elite at the expense of the Byzantine province of Spania and the Suebic Kingdom of Galicia.

Picts

In the late Roman period Britain had become the bread basket of the Northern Empire, providing vast amounts of grain to the army stationed along the Rhine and in Gaul. It had become a valuable region of the empire, and so was a target for raiders seeking loot.

In AD 367 Roman Britain was under attack from the Picts in the north, Irish and Saxons, many people at the time believed there may have been a conspiracy, including Ammianus Marcellinus, a contemporary historian, who called it Barbaica Conspiratio or Barbarian Conspiracy.

Late Roman Infantry

The question today is, what there a conspiracy or were the multiple attacks just a coincidence. For over a year the Empire had been fighting on several boarders against the Alamanni, Sarmatians, Austaraini and the Goths. It is just possible that the Empire was seen as vulnerable, and it was coincidence that they all attacked at a similar time. Empire was over stretched and the barbarians were able to take advantage of this.

In 337, thirty years prior, Constantine died, and the empire was divided between his three sons, Constantine II (Britain, Spain and Gaul), Constans (Italy, Balkans and Africa) and Constantius was given the East. There were now three emperors, who were all highly ambitious. In 340 AD Constantine II invaded Italy, civil war erupted and during the conflict Constantine was killed. Which allowed Constans to absorb Britain, Spain and Gaul.

There were now a Western and Eastern Emperor, but in the west things were still tense and unsettled. By 350 Constans had been usurped by Magnentius who retained control of the west until 353 AD, when he was over thrown by Constantius II.

The Empire, especially in the west had been in turmoil since the death of Constantine, civil war and usurpation had added to the chaos. So its understandable that some of the barbarian tribes decided to take advantage of the situation. The first sign of this would be in 360 AD when the Picts and Scots broke a peace treaty, laying waste to the countryside near the Northern Frontier in Britain. The alarm was raised, and the Emperor responded by sending Lupiciaus, master of cavalry, who was a stout and fierce soldier, with a great deal of experience to deal with the troubles in Britain. During this time the Alamanni were causing trouble in Gaul and elsewhere.

By 364 AD the empire was under assault by numerous barbarian peoples. The Alamanni were ravaging Gaul and Raetia, the Sarmatians and Quadi were attacking Pamania. Back in Britain Picts, Scots, Saxons and Attacoti were bringing misery and conflict. Africa was under attack from Austariani (Moors) and the Goths were plundering parts of Thrace and Moesia. On top of all this Persia was stirring in the east. The Roman army would have been stretched beyond breaking point, unable to meet all of the threats. Troops would have been pulled from regions to cope with the most severe threats, which would have left those regions vulnerable.
AD 367 is described as the year of the Barbarian Conspiracy. In Britain there was a concerted invasion by land and sea. Four peoples attacked Britain that year from different directions, attacking different regions of Britain. For the conspiracy to have worked, would have meant that it would have to been agreed upon in the years preceding AD 367.

There is no real evidence to support a barbarian conspiracy. For this conspiracy to have worked, then you would also have to add the attacks in other parts of the empire as well, because these attacks helped to pull troops away who could been sent to aid Britain. In the late fourth century this really wouldn’t have been logistically possible for all of these tribes to have worked together, and make a conspiracy work.

Though there was serious troubles during this period in Britain. Hadrian’s Wall had to be repaired in places due to the troubles. Parts of Kent were plundered, though these were probably more opportunistic rather than part of some conspiracy.

There was a degree of social unrest during this time amongst the populous, and the attacks by the Northern tribes occurred because of this situation, attacking and taking advantage of the fact that the Roman army was preoccupied. Local Roman military was over stretched and weak, the Picts took advantage, roving at large and causing devastation, but this was more raiding rather than a concentrated invasion by a well organised army.

The Romans eventually sent Theodosius the elder with a group of regiments to restore order in Britain.

Saxons
The Saxons were a confederation of tribes from the Saxony region of Northern Germania. They started settling in mainland Britain from the 5th Century onwards, though the number of Saxon migrants is not known. It is also known through written documentation dating between the 4th and 5th Centuries AD that Saxon pirates were raiding the coastal region of Britain.
The Saxons may have derived their name from seax, a kind of knife for which they were known. The seax has a lasting symbolic impact in the English counties of Essex and Middlesex, both of which feature three seaxes in their ceremonial emblem.
Picts
The Picts were a confederation of tribes living in the eastern and northern area of Scotland. They became prominent as power in Northern Britain during the Dark Ages, raiding Northern England via land and sea.
The name the Picts called themselves is unknown. The Latin word Picti first
mentioned by Eumenius in AD 297 and is taken to mean “painted or tattooed people. It seems from this written evidence that they had been a problem for the Roman military for some time prior to this. The word in old Norse for Pict is Pettir meaning painted or pirate.

The Picts inhabited Northern Britain  above Hadrian’s Wall from at least 297 -858 AD, though it is puzzling that they aren’t mentioned before by Roman historians and contemporary writers if the tribe is indigenous to Britain. Though some believe that they may have been descendants of Caledonian Britain’s.

They carried out raids over land and sea/river using small boats or coracles deep into Roman territory in the Northern military zone around Hadrian’s Wall, though it seems that they may also have raided far south as Wales.

Cesar defeated Cassivelanus in the area which is known as Hertfordshire, on this occasion the Romans didn’t stay, trade contracts were increased, but there would be no permanent Roman presence until the invasion by Claudius in AD 43.

Then from AD 43 Britain would be known as Britannia, and would become a Roman Province for over 400 years. The legions quickly established themselves in South England, and very quickly colonies were established at Colchester and Lincoln further north. Road networks were built allowing troops to move quickly across the country.

It took 30 years to conquer and quell the tribes in Britain, with only one major setback in AD 60 when Boudicca and the Iceni revolted. They sacked Londinum and ran amok, before being destroyed on the field of battle.

Agricola led the first incursions into Scotland in AD 80, which resulted in the defeat of the Caledonians in AD 84. By 87 AD the highlands of Scotland were abandoned, by 105 AD the Roman army abandoned the Scottish lowlands as well. A new frontier was established along the Stanegate (Tyne-Solway line).

Then in AD 120 Hadrian visited the Island, and establishes a permanent frontier between the Solway and the Tyne. This is known today as Hadrian’s Wall, running over 80 km, it stood as a symbol of Roman power for centuries. It was also an important military zone in Britain and Europe, due to the country becoming a major producer of grain for the empire.

In the summer of 1942 the German army advanced towards the city with 250,000 men, 7,000 artillery and mortars and 500 tanks. Progress was slow as fuel was rationed, with priority given to Army Group A. By the end of July Paulus was forced to call a halt due to fuel shortages at Kalach; supplies would finally arrive on August 7th. This prompted Paulus to preserve food and only order out the XIV Panzer Corp towards Stalingrad. The Red Army attacked forcing the Panzer Corp to halt just shy of the city. In light of this delay Paulus moved the entire army towards the city encircling Stalingrad. With the city surrounded, the German army delayed any attacks until the 7th September. The first wave of attacks came from the Luftwaffe with a large scale bombing killing thousands of civilians.

Stalin gave orders that the city should not fall into German hands and should be held at all costs. If Stalingrad fell it would open the way for the German army to advance on Moscow, and in all likelihood this would have meant the fall of Russia. The Russian war machine went into overdrive with a million infantry troops drafted into the area with support from tanks, aircraft and rocket batteries. Factories in the Urals also went into overdrive to produce the necessary armour to defend the city. Stalin gave command for the defence to the undefeated General Georgi Zhukov.

As the Germans advanced into the city, they were forced to fight for every street, house and building. The fighting became intense and brutal, troops on both sides fought amongst the rubble of the city, dying in their thousands. The deeper they managed to drive into the city the more fierce the fighting became, then the more deadlier it became with casualties amongst both forces rapidly increasing daily.

The 500 German tanks became useless as the fighting progressed deeper and deeper into the city. Infantry became the driving force for the German advance. With the fight taking place amongst the ruins of the city, the Russian army made use of snipers deploying them all over the city. On the 28th September the German army raised the Swastika over the local government buildings in Red Square though the fierce street fighting continued. Hitler commanded Paulus to take the city regardless of the cost. General Kurt Zeitzler, chief of general staff, was opposed to the idea. He wanted the 6th Army to withdraw but Hitler refused. Since entering the city the German army had incurred 40,000 casualties. On the 4th October Paulus requested more troops. A few days later five engineer battalions, along with a Panzer division, were sent to the city. Stalin in turn ordered three more armies into Stalingrad. Heavy rain in October slowed down supplies reaching the German army in the city.

Winter and the snow arrived on October 19th. The Germans were making good progress by November, controlling around 90% of the city. Troops were running short of food and ammunition when Paulus decided to launch a new offensive. For two days the Germans took heavy casualties. Worse was to come in the form of a Russian counter attack which forced them to retreat southwards giving up much hard-fought ground. They reached the airfield at Gumrak, and Hitler gave orders for them to stop and hold their ground even though this would risk the army being encircled. Paulus was reassured by high command that the Luftwaffe would drop sufficient supplies, though several of Paulus’s senior officers doubted that they could actually airlift the much needed supplies in the middle of winter. They also made a request that the army try and break out of the city before they became trapped. Paulus refused saying he had no choice but to carry out Hitler’s orders.

All through December the Luftwaffe continued to drop 70 tonnes of supplies a day – the army required a minimum of 300 tonnes a day. The army were placed on 1/3 rations, which forced them to slaughter the remaining horses just to survive. By the 7th December the situation had become dire, with food rations really low. The 6th Army were at risk of starvation and surrendering. Hitler ordered the 4th Panzer Army under Field Marshall Erich Von Manstien to make a rescue attempt. Though they were within 30 miles of the city, the Russian army managed to halt them forcing them to retreat. The German army lost 28,000 men in December. Due to a lack of food Paulus gave the order that the 12,000 wounded soldiers could no longer be fed. Manstien ordered Paulus to attempt a breakout.

On the 30th December Hitler promoted Paulus to Field Marshall and told him that no German Field Marshall had ever been captured expecting Paulus to order his troops to continue fighting. The next day Paulus surrendered. On the 2nd February, the battle for Stalingrad was over. The German army suffered 150,000 dead and 91,000 captured. The German prisoners were forced to march to Siberia where a further 45,000 German soldiers died en route to the prisoner of war camps. At the end of the war only 7,000 had survived from the original 250,000 men.